Ron Myers <myers@rohan.sdsu.edu>

THE ISAN PEOPLE OF NORTHEAST THAILAND:
A SEARCH FOR IDENTITY
By Ron Myers

Chapter I

Introduction to the Isan People and Region of Northeast Thailand


THE ISAN PEOPLE

The twenty million Isan people, who inhabit Thailand's Northeastern Region, and who comprise one-third of the nation's total population, are not as free to enjoy the benefits of democracy as the name of their country may imply. Descended from Laotian, Mon and Khmer stock, the Isan are indelibly steeped in ancient customs, traditions and beliefs. Typically substance-level rice farmers, most Isan people survive by the sweat of their brows on a day-by-day basis in an archaic, agrarian-based sub-culture, passed down from their forbearers.
Although the rural-dwelling Isan may appear outwardly lethargic and blasé, they a hard-working people, toughened by the land on which they toil and the socio-economic conditions they have been made to endure. The Isan have traditionally been an oppressed people, routinely taken advantage of by local merchants, scorned and ridiculed by their politically-shrewd and class-conscious Thai cousins, and exploited by regional favoritism and ethnic prejudice, subtly sanctioned by government policy and practice.
Despite continual derision and censure by the mainstream Central Thai populace, the rural dwellers of the Isan region have been able to endure due to a survivor attitude that contradicts their predicament. Consequently, the inquisitive outsider is often mystified as to what internal driving force compels these hearty people to persevere, despite their circumstances.
Even so, the Isan are quietly emerging from their humble, deep-rooted agrarian origins, gradually transitioning into what is becoming the nation's semi-official labor class. They are also transitioning from relying solely on their agrarian-based sub-economy and taking a greater participatory role in the national market-based economy. As a result, the Isan are becoming more widely accepted by the general Thai populace and are even being catered to by astute politicians as a potentially powerful voting bloc with which to be reckoned as representative democracy and constitutionally-mandated social equality develops and matures across Thailand's political landscape.

THEIR LAND

The Northeastern Region, or Isan, lies along the border of Laos and Cambodia, separated by the Mekong River. Isan is the largest and most populous region of Thailand, albeit the least developed, and occupies an area of about 64,000 square miles, or one-third of the country's total land mass. Thailand's system of geopolitical administration is divided up into provinces or jangwats. With over seventy-two jangwats in total, Isan comprises nineteen of these.
Geographically, the Isan region is spread over the Korat Plateau, a vast tableland that derives its name from an ancient Khmer kingdom-city, which once governed the area during the pre-Thai era. The Korat Plateau is drained by streams and tributaries that flow into the Mekong River watershed which also forms the entire Thai-Lao northeastern border. The word Korat is the shortened form for Nakhon Ratchasima, a major province that forms the southern gateway to the Isan region. (See Map)
The Isan countryside, averaging 450 to 600 feet above sea-level, is characteristically suited for rice-paddies and is interspersed with forested and mountainous regions. Isan typically has a harsh, sun-baked climate. During the monsoon rice-planting season, various locales frequently receive uneven rainfall often to the point of being either draught- or flood-ridden, resulting in unpredictable crop yields.
The Isan people have for centuries eked out an austere existence on generally inhospitable land in less than favorable conditions as substance-level agrarians and pastoral hunter-gatherers whose ancestors inhabited the area before them. As a result, this indigent farmer-class people have learned to make do with what they have, within the confines of their own sub-economy, and have developed a resilient love of life that belies their predicament.

THEIR HERITAGE

The Isan are an ancient people, descended mainly from Lao, Mon and pre-Cambodian Khmer ancestry. Although new origin theories have been postulated by revisionists, causing debate mainly among Thai historians, the progenitors of the Isan, together with their Thai and Lao cousins, likely migrated from Southern China or beyond, starting from the first millennium AD and before. This is the traditional view and most widely accepted, consistent with socio-linguistic indications and various ancient chronicles, including Chinese, Khmer, and Indian, as well as established Thai and Lao oral tradition and writings.
The entire Isan region is rich with ancient Buddhist shrines and temples that dot the landscape, indications of a deep-rooted religious and cultural heritage. In addition to the myriad of Buddhist artifacts, the Isan region contains ancient Khmer temple ruins, remnants of Brahman-class Hindu influence. These date from the Indianized Angkor civilization of the first millennium and are located throughout Isan's southern sector, adjacent to the Cambodian border. They were constructed when Thailand's Isan region was part of the Khmer empire, once ruled from Angkor Tome in present-day Northern Cambodia.

THEIR BELIEFS

As the nation's state-ordained religion, Theravada Buddhism is also practiced by Isan people. Blended with a syncretistic combination of ancestor veneration, Animism, 1[4] Brahmanism, 2[5] and Shamanism, along with a liberal mixture of superstitious folklore and traditions, the complete belief package forms a powerful socio-cultural identification. A way of life, not readily open to outside input, influence, or change.

1[4] Animism: belief in a parallel world inhabited by malevolent spirit beings who cause calamity and ill to fall upon the unsuspecting who have unwittingly done something to cause offense. This belief is evidenced by the keeping of taboos and the practice of shamanism, spirit mediums who use various means of divination to contact the offended spirit to arrive at an appeasement price sufficient to placate the offended spirit, who has visited. This is usually some kind of sacrifice, often in the form of a chicken or pig. Territorial owner spirits who preside over entire towns and villages are often offered a yearly sacrifice of greater value, usually consisting of one or more larger animals, such as cattle, oxen or water buffalo.
2[5] Brahmanism: trust in omens, amulets, incantations, auspicious days and occasions.

THEIR EMERGENCE AND CURRENT SITUATION

Despite years of lethargy and mediocre response to the Thai government's various rural development assistance programs, the rural-dwelling Isan people have begun to awaken and are taking their own initiative.
This self-initiative and awakening process began in the 1960s, precipitated by the advent of the Vietnam War
The hashish-growing industry developed and flourished in parts of the rural Northeast during the Vietnam War period, providing an unparalleled albeit illegal source of income for the previously-indigent rice farmers as they supplied a ready-made market. This market peaked in the mid-to-late 1970s and later tapered off, due to the return of US Soldiers and a concentrated effort by the authorities, which made it increasingly difficult to continue.

In the 1980s Bangkok began to develop industrially, providing further job opportunities, both in construction, local industry, and in foreign-owned manufacturing and assembly plants. Many Isan sojourned back to Bangkok from their overseas employment with newly acquired skills to work as laborers in construction and modernization projects, as factory workers, and as skilled technicians, all to help in their own country's modernization process. Meanwhile, other good-paying employment opportunities continued to arise in surrounding Asian Tiger nations such as Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Malaysia and Singapore.
This rapid economic growth pattern continued at record pace until the Asian economic collapse in mid-1997. This slowed things down considerably and sent waves of Isan workers back home to the Northeast Region, where they were sustained through the hard times by relying on their agrarian sub-economy. Later, as things began to pick up economically, the Isan returned to Bangkok to find new jobs. Thus, over the last few decades, as if by some internal region-wide signal, the rural-dwelling Isan people rallied to the challenge to better their lot.
Taking personal initiative, they migrated in cyclical waves both within Thailand and beyond to seek employment at a fair wage, returning home with the economic fruit of their labors, newly-learned skills, and new-found knowledge of the outside world, to the good fortune of their families and the betterment of their country. This whole process has caused the Isan to emerge from their modest agrarian roots to become the recognized labor class of Thailand as a byproduct of their journey to self-advancement.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Thailand's tourism industry has taken root and has begun to burgeon. The Northeast, being the least developed region of the country, rarely receiving mention in Tourism Authority of Thailand's literature, figuring it would be least favored by tourists. As the TAT began to realize that foreign tourists didn't have the same mindset as the Thai, and that they were missing an untapped lucrative potential, 1998 was declared the "Year of Isan." Thus, the Isan Region was finally recognized by the Thai Tourism Authority as a viable tourist destination, which has helped bring recognition and prosperity to the area.
Concurrently, the Thai the Board of Investment (BOI), which oversees and regulates all foreign investment, is following an incentive strategy to encourage foreign investors to move out of Bangkok into more-provincial regions of the country, including the Northeast. This will lessen congestion in and around Bangkok and help develop and provide local jobs in other regions of the country. Northeastern provinces are gearing up for this by developing industrial parks and other programs to make their locations more attractive.
As a result of their perseverance and tenacity, the Isan are becoming more respected as a people and even courted politically. After being taken advantage of, they are beginning to acquire more political leverage as they become more knowledgeable and discerning.

THE ISAN PEOPLE OF NORTHEAST THAILAND:

A SEARCH FOR IDENTITY
(1960-2000)
By Ron Myers

Chapter II

Origins and Historical Roots of the Isan Region and Its Inhabitants

Table of Contents

Ancient Origins : ...................................................................................................................................................1
Prehistoric : ..........................................................................................................................................................2
Cultural Interchanges : Current Era Through First Millennium .................................................................................4
Ancient Cultures and Kingdoms of the Mekong River Basin : .................................................................................6
Funan (Mon) Kingdom : .......................................................................................................................................7
Third Century BC: Buddhism in Southeast Asia : ...................................................................................................7
Early-Developed Power Centers : ........................................................................................................................8
Sri Kotrabun : Mon Kingdom-Settlement in the Upper Isan Region .......................................................................9
Early Cultures, Religions, and Art Forms in Isan : ................................................................................................10
Other Early Kingdom-Settlements : ....................................................................................................................11
Khmer Domination : ...........................................................................................................................................13
Thai Advent: Twelfth Century : ...........................................................................................................................13
Sukhothai Kingdom : ..........................................................................................................................................14
Thai-Lao Script and Writing Systems : ................................................................................................................15
Isan Excluded from Sukhothai Kingdom : ............................................................................................................16
Lan Chang Kingdom: Forerunner to Isan Region : ...............................................................................................16
Laotian Kingdoms: Isan's Heritage : ....................................................................................................................17
Decline And Fall of Khmer Empire : ...................................................................................................................18
Northeast Thailand Develops Its Own Identity : ..................................................................................................18
1500 and 1600s : ...............................................................................................................................................19
Isan Peasant Revolt : ..........................................................................................................................................20
1700s to 1800s : ................................................................................................................................................21
Early 1900s : The Monthon System and Rebellion ...............................................................................................22
Poverty and Neglect : .........................................................................................................................................23
Communist Activity : ..........................................................................................................................................24
Mid 1900s : .......................................................................................................................................................24
Present Period : .................................................................................................................................................25
Conclusions and Observations : ..........................................................................................................................26
Revisionist History and Other Discrepancies : .....................................................................................................26
Early Dichotomous Relationships Between the Thai and Isan : .............................................................................29

Ancient Origins

A noted scholar once said that every problem or difficulty, to be properly understood, should be traced back to its source. With this in mind, to properly understand the present situation with the Isan people and their plight at the hands of the Thai, one must return to the beginning. [1]
Any legitimate attempt to understand the Isan people of Northeast Thailand and appreciate the various aspects of their present-day afflictions and circumstances [2] would be hampered without an overview of the origins of the Isan people and the region of Isan that they presently inhabit. The Isan region is said by some to represent the ancient heartland of Thailand, where centuries-old customs and lifestyles still survive.
Thus, this paper requires at least a summary mention of the peoples and migrations of the various predecessors that waxed and waned in size and influence across the centuries in reciprocating tug-of-war struggles to occupy and exert control over the Korat Plateau region or Isan, the vast semi-arid plateau that drains southeastward into the Mekong river which forms the eastern boundary between Thailand and Laos.
Northeastern Thailand, usually referred to as Isan, is one of the most provincial and least developed regions in Thailand. However, upon traveling throughout modern-day Isan, it becomes apparent that more advanced and prosperous civilizations once existed there, evidenced by the numerous ancient temples and other assorted edifices that can be found throughout the width and breadth of the vast land known as Isan.
The word Isan, for whom the people and region of Northeast Thailand are named, is said by some to be a derivative of the ancient Bali term Isana, meaning "northeast," possibly referring to an old Mon-Khmer kingdom named Isana that once flourished in the region. The term might also be loosely translated as meaning either "vast" or "prosperous," although "vast" seems more appropriate. Others maintain, because of the general barrenness of the land, that the name Isan is associated with the Hindu deity Phra Isuan, also called Phra Siwa or Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction. [3] [4]
In any event, according to D G E Hall in his work, A History of Southeast Asia, the origins of the predecessors of the Isan people of Northeast Thailand and their Laotian neighbors are at best "legendary and clouded in obscurity." [5]

[1] Robert Dick Wilson, the distinguished Princeton Seminary Old Testament Scholar.
[2] Various aspects of the Isan class struggle would include: social, cultural, economic, educational and political advancement or development.
[3] The various players in this unfolding drama of possession of the Isan region over the centuries include the Khmer, the Thai, the Burmese, the Lao and their predecessors, the Cham, the Mong, and others.
[4] Mark Caldwell's Isan People Profile Paper. November 1997 (unpublished)
[5] D. G. E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia, chapter thirteen: "... The Tai Kingdoms... ," Second edition, Jarrold and Sons, Norwich, Great Britain, 1965, p. 238

Prehistoric

Modern scholars of various disciplines [6] have concluded that the entire Mekong river basin and valley area -- including Thailand's Korat plateau (the Isan region) and parts of Laos -- was inhabited in primeval times by hunter-gatherer agrarian aborigines of Austro-Asiatic stock as early as five or more millennia ago. This is evidenced by numerous prehistoric archaeological discoveries located throughout the region. Two of which are the cliff paintings of Pha Taem in Ubon province overlooking the Mekong river and the Ban Chiang excavations of central Udon province lend evidence.[7]
Ancient accounts of the area, chronicled by early Chinese and Indian merchant-traders, refer to the early inhabitants of the entire Southeast Asian region (including Thailand's northeast sector) as being primarily rice farmers that were skilled in the production of bronze and iron tools, handmade pottery and textiles. Early inhabitants of the region maintained a close sense of community, dwelling in villages situated on raised knolls near streams and rivers where they raised paddy and upland rice on the surrounding land. (cite George Coedes) The ancient peoples that inhabited the area had codes of social conduct and economies based on crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Inter-community trade was also practiced as village members skilled in the trades made tools and ornaments from bronze and later from iron. [8]
They also enjoyed mutually similar world views, including beliefs pertaining to death, burial and the hereafter. Original inhabitants of the area, it has been determined, also depended heavily upon hunting and gathering for their sustenance. Native traders used established mountain, jungle, and river routes from earliest times to make interregional contact. Because of its superior size, the Mekong River and its tributaries was the route of choice, allowing traders to penetrate deep into isolated areas of the plateau region where they bought and traded for various products and foods. [9]
Cultural Interchanges: Current Era Through First Millennium
Around the beginning of the Christian era, the introduction of outside influences began to occur. Local inhabitants of the Southeast Asian region came into contact with merchant traders from India and China, who had immigrated to the area bringing their traditions and values, religions and world views along with them. Over a period of time, these more sophisticated cultural values, world views and religious systems influenced the indigenous locals.

[6] Historians, archeologists, socio-cultural anthropologists and linguists, as well as other related disciplines.
[7] Ban Chiang diggings: Ban Chiang is a village located within present-day Udon Thani province, approximately 40 miles east of Udon city. There are also adjacent findings in village areas in the general Sakon Nakon Basin region to the east of Ban Chiang.
[8] Approximately five to six thousand years ago, according to Thai claims. This would line up with the bronze age and later the iron age.
[9] Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, Laos: A Country Study, Washington , D.C. 1971.

Indian cultural values began to permeate Southeast Asia -- India itself having been influenced over the centuries contact and trade from Western Europe and China who brought prosperity to the seaport cities of India's southern region. [10] [11]
Correspondingly, evidence of early travel, trade and cultural-interchange between India and Southeast Asia would later be discovered in Thailand's central region. [12] Indian ships sailed to Southeast Asian ports where Indian merchants sold cotton dry goods, ivory, and other desirable items to Chinese merchants, who then transported these trade goods by sea back to China. [13] In turn, Indian merchants acquired spices that they traded elsewhere. [14]
In the process, Indian merchants from the high Brahman caste established colonies in Southeast Asia along their trade routes, including settlements among the pre-Cambodian Mon and Khmer peoples who inhabited the entire area at the time. [15]
George Coedes makes mention of these early traders in his illuminating work, the Indianization of Southeast Asia. These Brahman merchants, eager to establish trading outposts, came and settled in Southeast Asia in and around the area of what was to become the Khmer kingdom of Angkor and brought their culture and ways with them, including priests of their Brahman religion. [16]
Through prolonged and expanded trade, many of these expatriate Indian merchants became wealthy.

[10] Leaving southern Indian ports were ivory, onyx, cotton goods, silks, pepper and other spices, and from the Roman empire the Indians imported tin, lead, antimony and wine.
[11] Intrusions included those of Alexandria of Greece, from Persian and Median Empires, and possibly Rome with whom India conducted trade.
[12] Roman coins and other metal objects dating back to the second or third centuries AD have been unearthed in present-day Nakon Pathom province, west of Bangkok, most likely having been carried there from India. These findings testify to the passage of foreign travelers and traders throughout the area during that period and later.
[13] Indian ships sailed south to Lanka and then east to Southeast Asian ports, where Indian merchants sold cotton cloth, ivory, brass wear, monkeys, parrots and elephants to Chinese merchants, who transported their goods by sea to China.
[14] India and China also established trade route across Central Asia by camel caravan, across what would become known as the great northern silk route.
[15] These settlements included along the Burma coastal lands, the Malay peninsula, and in what is now Cambodia, where they spread their culture; also in places such as Bali, Sumatra, Java and the Philippines.
[16] George Coedes, the Indianization of Southeast Asia.

Their presence and that of their extended families introduced their religious and cultural values into Southeast Asia. Consequently, in the same way that Western culture spread abroad by trade, Indian ideals and concepts were carried to Southeast Asia through these merchants. [17]
Hindu Brahman-class settlers intermingled with the Khmer people and eventually intermarried. Their colonies became states, ruled by descendants of the original Indian settlers. Thus, their language, art forms, beliefs and cultural heritage spread throughout present-day Southeast Asia, dating from this earlier era.
One historically significant structure from this former era is the ancient Khmer ruins of the city of Angkor, located in north-central Cambodia. It was constructed circa 800 CE by King Jayavarman II (770-850). [18] Similar structures can be found in Northeast Thailand at Phimai and Phanom Rung, near the Khmer border. These reflect ancient Indian culture and art form. They also testify to the expanse of the Khmer Empire at Angkor, whose dominion extended north and west hundreds of miles into present-day Laos and Thailand, including Thailand's Northeast or Isan Region.

Ancient Cultures and Kingdoms of the Mekong River Basin

The Mon culture flourished as the dominant culture in the region of Thailand from the 6th century A.D. until the 11th century A.D. when they were supplanted by the Khmer, antecedents to today's Cambodians.
They settled in the Mekong River Delta, in the Central Plains, and in the north around Lamphun, the capital of one of their more significant Northern kingdoms.
The Mon brought Buddhism, Sanskrit, and many other Indian influences and art forms into the area. The Dvaravati-style Thai art form is named after the Mon. The Mon art is mainly religious (i.e. Buddhist) art. They produced arch-typical Buddhist statues with a characteristic features: broad noses, deeply lined mouths, single bow-like eyebrows, and a gentle, though slightly demonic, smile. Besides bronze and stone stucco was one of their preferred materials.
The Mon were the dominant culture until the 11th century A.D. when they were eventually supplanted by the Khmer, a related people whose descendants still settle modern Cambodia. The Mon lasted longer in the North (or Lanna), where they were the dominant culture until the end of the 13th century.

[17] Frank E. Smitha, Antiquity Online: civilizations, philosophies and changing religions Copyright © 1998 All rights reserved: http://www.eurekanet.com/~fesmitha/h1/ch13.htm#st3
[18] Encycopedia Britannica Online http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=19054&tocid=1039#1039.toc

The Thai-Lao peoples, by some accounts, migrated into the Indo-Chinese peninsula from China, starting around 400 B.C. There, they bonded in with the Mon empire, the prevailing race at the time, approximately from the fifth century A.D. onward. In the tenth century A.D., the Khmer began to migrate into the area and eventually superceded the Mon so that the Thai came under the rule of the Khmer. [19]

Funan (Mon) Kingdom

The urbanization of Southeast Asia began circa 100 BC. From the latter part of the first century AD through the mid-sixth century, a conglomeration of kingdom-states of significant stature that the Chinese called Funan [20] arose along coastal South Vietnam and Cambodia. At its peak, Funan became a regional power and saw its fiefdom states extend their influence into parts of central Laos to the west and beyond. These kingdoms included the successor state of Chenla. They also were influenced by India, evidenced by traces of Hinduism and Buddhism that evidently coexisted there. (George Coedes)

Third Century BC: Buddhism in Southeast Asia

There is no agreement on dates as to when Buddhism was first introduced into Thailand and Laos. One source links Thailand's Northeastern region with India and Buddhism as occurring after the 5th century AD, artifacts having been found from this Dvaravati time period, including stone boundary markers, Buddhist images, and temple relics.)(cite ref)
In the third century BC, the Indian emperor Ashoka is said to have dispatched his Buddhist missionaries, Sona and Uttara, to the general area known as Suvannabhumi (Su-wan-na-pume), or "The Land of Plenty," to establish a Buddhist outpost among the locals. These were mainly animists that practiced folk religions and healing arts, some of which are still commonly practiced today, synchrotized in with Buddhism.
Although Buddhism would later become firmly established throughout the whole region, its initial spread was doubtless rather slow and tedious because of travel difficulties and a comparatively unresponsive populace, steeped in their own animistic practices, folk religions and worship of nature. Thus, it may have been several hundred years from the time of introduction before Buddhism was widely accepted and practiced in the region. [21]

[19] Nantana Ronnakiat, Department of Linguistics, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand quoted from: Chaichana, C. 1963. History of Thailand. Kasembanakit, Bangkok, Thailand.
[20] Funan is said to be a Chinese mispronunciation of panom, a local-area pre-Khmer word meaning city or kingdom.
[21] Rogers, Northeast Thailand from Prehistoric to Modern Times, 1996

Early-Developed Power Centers

From about the first century AD, a number of localized mini-states or fiefdoms began to develop in the middle Mekong Valley that were based on wetland rice cultivation and associated with the pottery and bronze culture of Ban Chiang. Ban Chiang being an inconsequential village located in Udon Thani province in north-central Isan where remains of pre-historic skeletons, pottery, weapons and tools were unearthed. These were definitive evidence of a Bronze Age civilization that flourished in Isan between five to seven thousand years ago. [22]
Later, as trade, marriage, and warfare expanded their sphere of influence into sparsely-populated neighboring areas, various kingdoms and fiefdoms emerged, reflecting and influenced by the cultures of the Cham and Mon peoples that previously resided in the region. These administrative spheres or mandala were Indian-styled power centers that occupied the central Mekong valley region in early times. Later, trade, marriages, and rivalries between rulers further aided in expansion of these mandalas. [23]

Sri Kotrabun: Mon Kingdom-Settlement in the Upper Isan Region

One of the earliest settlements in the Upper Isan area was Sri Kotrabun, a mandala-styled fiefdom or vassal state, thought to have been founded between the fifth and sixth centuries BC. Sri Kotrabun, purported to be the capital of the Mon Empire, was originally located on the west bank of the Mekong at the mouth of the Sri Bangfai river, a tributary of the Mekong. [24]
The ancient Sri Kotrabun kingdom was located in Isan's present-day province of Nakon Panom, situated approximately 500 miles (750 kilometers) northeast of Bangkok. This province was christened "Nakon Panom" in 1782 by King Rama I, founding monarch of the present-day Chakkri dynasty, who upon visiting the area was greatly impressed by the majestic panorama that greeted him.
Nakon Panom, an ancient Khmer term meaning "city of hills," is so named because it is situated on the west bank of the Mekong river at one of its widest points, just across from jagged forested mountains that line the eastern bank in Laos which are often shrouded in mist.

[22] Ban Chiang: an archeological site of historical significance located at the village of Ban Chiang, approximately 40 miles due east of Udon City in the province of Udon Thani, Northeast Thailand
[23] mandala, a term meaning 'star,' was an Indian-styled geopolitical term which referred to systems of variable-sized, expanding and contracting spheres of influence centered round a ruler, his palace, and the religious center from which he drew his legitimization.
[24] Saisong's Home Page - Religious Beginnings in Thailand - http://koti.mbnet.fi/~saisong/

Both mountains and river form substantial natural barriers that helped protect the area and limited any significant cultural influence or political threats from the east. However, Sri Kotrabun later migrated further westward to avoid the expansion of the Champa empire, another Indianized state on the coast of present-day Vietnam and founded in 192 A.D. [25]

Early Cultures, Religions, and Art Forms in Isan

People movements of the past are often reflected in modern-day culture and art forms, which substantiate the pre-existence of highly refined cultures, once prevalent in the area.
The Mon for example, brought Buddhism, Sanskrit, and many other Indian influences and art forms into the area. Dvaravati-style art form is named after the Mon and is mainly religious i.e. Buddhist. The Mon first produced what today have become archetypical Buddhist statues featuring the characteristic broad, flat nostrils, deeply lined mouth, thin arched eyebrows and a gentle impish smile. (cite ref)
During the centuries, various dai-speaking peoples, predecessors to the modern-day Lao, along with ethnic Mon groups, migrated across the Mekong River to settle in the old Sri Kotrabun kingdom region. This is reflected in the numerous minority-groups still living in the area, with their diverse dialects and customs. [26]
This is typical throughout the entire Isan region where many unique art forms and cultural folk dances still exist. One example is the Sri Kotrabun dance, associated with Isan's Nakon Panom province. It is still performed today on auspicious occasions in celebration of the area's long-standing history and glories of the past.
Likewise, numerous ancient temples and sacred religious monuments are located within present-day Nakon Panom province, as they are throughout Isan. Phra Thaat Panom, located in southern Nakon Panom province, is one of the earliest and most venerated Buddhist shrines, revered by both Thai and Lao. The actual date and origin of this shrine has not been successfully determined, but authorities speculate that initial construction dates range back to around 500 AD, approximating the period of the Sri Kotrabun Kingdom, which was situated in the same vicinity. (cite ref)

[25] US Library of Congress National Digital Library http://lcweb2.loc.gov/
[26] The majority of the people in the area consider themselves to be Kalerng, obviously a Dia people group. Some of the other various Dai-based tribal or people-groups in the area are the Phu-Thai, who trace their roots to Hue, Central Vietnam; the Nyaw, Saek, Yoi. Others are the So, Bru, and Tri, which are of the Mon-Khmer language group.

Other Early Kingdom-Settlements

Champa Kingdom (Cham, Sui)

Sri Kotrabun shifted westward, yielding to the Champa kingdom's expansion, a powerful and more-advanced Indianized state located on the central coast of Vietnam. Descendants of the Champa Kingdom settled Champasak in southern Laos, from the fifth century AD. (cite ref)

Angkor Kingdom (Khmer)

Following the Funan kingdom, Angkor was one of the best-known and longer-lasting Indianized kingdom-states in the area. The Khmer of the Angkor kingdom were in the area previous to the Thai or the Lao. D. G. E. Hall, a notable authority on early Southeast Asian History, dates the Angkor kingdom to as early as 800 AD under the Monarchy of King Jayavarmin II. [27] The Angkor kingdom continued to exist, albeit decreasing in influence and power, owing to weakened leadership, until its final demise in the mid 1400s at the hands of Thai invaders from Ayutthaya.

Candapuri Kingdom (Mon)

The ancient Mon kingdom of Candapuri, another Indian-styled mandala state -- similar in name to the neighboring modern-day province of Say-Ya-Buri -- is said by some to be the original name of Vientiene, the present-day capital of Laos.
Both Sri Kotrabun and Candapuri Kingdoms' appear to have had a hierarchical social class structure, with an aristocracy, a commoner class, and a slave class. This class-conscious social structure, still evident in many Asian societies today, was at least partially attributable to the influence of the Indian enculturation process that George Coedes speaks of in his afore-mentioned work, The Indianization of Southeast Asia. (George Coedes) Thinking themselves as being better, the Thais' critical view and demeaning treatment of the people of the Isan region may be due in part to this influence.
However, the Indian-styled caste structure was never fully accepted or adapted by Southeast Asians. Apparently, its polarizing effects were too alien and contrary to suit local socio-cultural norms, which were more Confucian-styled in philosophy and geared to a strong paternal figure to rally around.
Further evidence that refutes the adoption of India's caste system in Southeast Asia lies in the fact that certain successor ruler-princes or panya possibly came from the commoner class. This indicates that some form of upward mobility was practiced, based on a general consensus among the populace. Whereas, in the caste system, no upward mobility would exist and commoners would have little voice in the matter. (cite ref) Ironically, the oppressive manner in which the Isan are treated by their Thai cousins is reminiscent of the lack of opportunity of upwards mobility associated with the Indian caste system, which would cause one to speculate whether it was rejected in its entirety.

[27] D. G. E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia, Tables (the Angkor Monarchy), p. 874.St Martin's Press, London, 1964.

Dvaravati Kingdom (Mon)

The smaller Mon kingdom of Dvaravati was centered in the lower Mekong River Valley beginning in the fifth century. The Dvaravati Kingdom is significant in that it has been proposed that Theravada Buddhism reached into upper Isan and across the Mekong River into Laos in the seventh and eighth centuries through the Dvaravati kingdom. (cite ref)

Khmer Domination

Migrations in the seventh century continued to expand the various influences and the cultural mix of the region. By the eighth century, the earlier Mon mandala-states found themselves under Khmer authority, which continued for three to four centuries until the arrival of the Thai-Lao tribes from the north. They are often described as the older and younger siblings, a term the Lao don't care for, suggesting the Thai are superior or more advanced.
From the tenth to the mid-thirteenth centuries, the Khmer exercised cultural influence and political control over Isan, Northeastern Thai's Korat plateau region. Both Buddhist and pre-Buddhist edifices of Hindu origin and related relics associated with early forms of Khmer-styled worship located throughout the Northeast attest to this fact. [28] Many of these ancient Khmer ruins are found in Isan's lower region, just north the Khmer kingdom's seat of government of Angkor Tome, located across the Cambodian border to the south.

Thai Advent: Twelfth Century

Traditional historians and socio-linguistic scholars concur that Dai-speaking Thai-Lao peoples migrated south from the Nan Chao kingdom of Yunnan province of southern China, likely because of having been uprooted by Kublai Khan's raiding Mongol hordes. The time-frame associated with these events also coincide. They settled in what is now the Northern regions of Thailand and Laos in a subservient coexistence under the Khmer of Angkor, who were their predecessors to the area.

[28] Some of these pre-Buddhist Hindi-styled stone palace-temples or prasat hin are found at Panom Rung in Buriram province on the Cambodian border and at Phi Mai further north in Ubon Ratchatani province.

Sukhothai Kingdom

The early kingdom of Sukhothai arose as a Thai or possible Thai-Lao Chiefdom while under the dominion of the Khmer empire. This is reflected in early Sukhothai architecture, which is noticeably Khmer in its derivation.
Around the mid-thirteenth century (circa. 1238 AD), in an attempt to exert influence over a wider area, the Thai and Lao banned together under the leadership of two chieftains, attacked and overran an outlying Khmer outpost settlement. Some accounts say one of the chieftains challenged a Khmer officer to a one-on-one combat astride elephants and won. Whatever the actual situation, Sukhothai, said by Thai to mean "Dawn of Happiness," [29] (literally translated as happy Thai) became the capital of the first autonomous Thai state about 1238 AD. [30]
The conquering chieftain became the first ruler of Sukhothai, formally ending Khmer rule of the area from Angkor. This Thai chieftain became known as King Sri Inthrathit. His successor and son, King Ramkhamhaeng, known as the benevolent king, was doubtless one of the most celebrated monarchs to rule over the Sukhothai kingdom and is still highly venerated in modern Thai society.
The other chieftain was possibly head of a clan of Dai-speaking Lao predecessors that migrated eastward to settle in Lan Chang (Vientiane) and nearby Isan, early Lao kingdom-settlements.

Thai-Lao Script and Writing Systems

Of notable historical significance is the similarity of the Thai-Lao writing systems and scripts, strongly indicating singular roots and cultural relationships between the Thai and Lao. [31] The Thai King Ramkhamhaeng is credited with having developed the original Thai script circa AD 1293. [32] However, in actuality it is an innovative adaptation of the older Mon and Khmer scripts, whose roots were the Indic-based Brami writing system, [33] brought over by Indian traders and merchants. [34]

[29] Historical data compliments of Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
[30] Even though there were other Thai states in the general vicinity, like Lanna and Phayao, the Thai take great pride in this victory at Sukhothai and consider it to be the genesis of their nation, and a continuing source of national pride.
[31] According to Doug Cooper, Center for Research in Computational Linguistics, Bangkok, Thailand: The Mon-Khmer writing systems include Thai, Lao, Burmese (even though Burmese is in the Tibeto-Burmese group), Khmer, and various minority languages. They originated in the Grantha script, which was the southern form of the ancient Indian Brahmi writing system. The northern branch of this split, Devanagari, is the basis of many modern Indian alphabets. Mon and Khmer diverged first, then Burmese came from Mon. The earliest Thai/Lao scripts were derived in the latter part of the 13th century from cursive Khmer writing. Thai has changed somewhat over the centuries, while modern Lao has many similarities to the early Thai script. All of these writing systems share certain characteristics: spaces are not necessarily used to separate words, and vowels appear before, over, under, or following consonants. Alphabetical order is typically consonant-vowel-consonant, regardless of the letters' actual linear arrangement.
[32] Encyclopaedia Britannica Online http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?idxref=283399
[33] Encyclopaedia Britannica Online http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=118137&tocid=75066#75066.toc

This further suggests that the Indianized Mon and Khmer inhabited the vicinity previous to the advent of the Thai and Lao, subsequently influencing their cultures and writing systems.
It is entirely reasonable that the strong similarity of the two scripts (see chart) shows that: (1) the Lao cohabited with their Thai cousins under Mon and Khmer rule and later divided around the Sukhothai period, taking what became their version of the script with them; (2) the Lao were under oversight of the Thai and broke free to establish Lan Chang, taking the writing system with them; or (3) the Lao, as a nearby people group, were influenced by the Thai, subsequently adopting their writing system. [35] [36]
Both Sri Inthrathit and his son Ramkhamhaeng were warrior kings and extended their territories far and wide. By the early 1300s the Khmer were driven back towards Angkor leaving Sukhothai to enjoy sovereign control over the entire Chao Phya River basin to the south, including the entire Malay Peninsula, and westward into Burma towards the bay of Bengal. Sukhothai was officially christened "the land of plenty" by King Ramkhamhaeng and is remembered for its material prosperity, its art and architecture, as for its religious significance and political achievements.

Isan Excluded from Sukhothai Kingdom

Ramkhanhaeng is said to have used his considerable power to transform Sukhothai from a localized state into a regional power. However, according to many historians, the Isan region does not appear to have ever been included in the old Sukhothai kingdom. This seems to indicate that Sukhothai never held jurisdiction over Isan or its inhabitants. Instead, small multi-ethnic fiefdom-like communities were scattered over the area. *(Note Following)

Lan Chang Kingdom: Forerunner to Isan Region

After the decline of Sukhothai, two successor kingdoms took its place; the Thai or Siamese Kingdom of Ayuthaya, fifty miles north of present-day Bangkok, and the Lao Kingdom of Lan Chang meaning Land of a Million elephants -- situated on the Mekong River in Luang PraBang, Laos.
Beginning with the thirteenth century, Sukhothai began to wane in power and influence as Mongols from the north enjoyed increased supremacy in the middle Mekong Valley region.

[34] According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the Thai writing system is thought by scholars to be derived from that of the Khmer script, the Lao writing system from the Mon. This however seems inconsistent, seeing that both Thai and Lao scripts are plainly identical in nature, with minor variations in appearance and spelling rules, the Lao having been simplified by the French during their colonization period.
[35] Ibid.
[36] Concerning Lan Chang, logical geographical evidence and historical accounts by the Lao, would suggest that it was formed previous to the Sukothai kingdom, being more easily reached while traversing down the Mekong River from Southern China.

This led to the eventual decline of Sukhothai and later the founding of the Lao Kingdom of Lan Chang. Towards the mid-fourteenth century, powerful Thai states had already begun to emerge further south, namely Ayutthaya, whose political and economic power challenged Sukhothai's weakened authority. [37]

Laotian Kingdoms - Isan's Heritage

The first recorded history of Laos began as the kingdom of Lan Chang in the mid-fourteenth century under Fa Ngum, a Khmer military officer from Angkor. Fa Ngum became the first ruler in 1354 and reigned until 1373 from Luang Prabang, the first sovereign capital of Laos. The territory that became Laos had previously been ruled by the Khmers from Angkor, then by the Thais from Sukhothai.
King Fa Ngum declared Buddhism the de facto religion of the land. He extended the Lan Chang kingdom to include all of present-day Laos as well as parts of what would become Northern Thailand. He later expanded Laotian influence and rule over the northern part of the Khmer empire which was originally held as a shared territory, and which would eventually become Northeast Thailand. Lan Chang remained at these approximate borders for another three centuries. [38]

Decline And Fall of Khmer Empire

By the close of the 13th century the old Khmer empire of Angkor was drawing to a close, finally ending in its capture by King Uthong, founder of the Ayutthaya kingdom. From then on, skirmishes occurred with Thai-speaking peoples to the west and north on a recurrent basis.
Northern Khmer that speak a dialect of Mon-Khmer still inhabit the lower Isan provinces bordering Cambodia. There are also pockets of Dai-speaking Thai-Lao minorities within Cambodia, descendants of earlier migrations or remnants of prisoners taken in the many skirmishes between Khmer and Thai over the centuries. An elephant festival is held annually in Lower Isan's Surin province commemorating the victory battle of the Thai over the Khmer.

Northeast Thailand Develops Its Own Identity

By the fourteenth century, the inhabitants of Isan began to adopt an affinity and socio-cultural identity with the Laotians, whose Kingdom of Lan Chang was growing and expanding.

[37] By the 15th century Sukhothai was incorporated into the Ayutthaya kingdom as a province. The focus of Thai history and politics now moved to the central plains of present-day Thailand, where Ayutthaya was establishing itself as a centralized state, its power outstripping all neighboring states.
[38] In 1700 Laos broke up into three separate kingdom states: Luang Prabang in the north,
in the central portion, and Champassak in the South.

By this time, between the fourteen and sixteen hundreds, the Laotian people had been moving into the region in small groups. Initially the Lao settled in the vicinity of Udon Thani and Nong Khai in the Northern Isan region, directly south of Vientiane. Beginning in the early eighteenth century, Laotian migration was primarily into southern Isan from the Champasak area of Laos. From there, settlers spread deep into Isan via the Mun and Chee rivers. (see upper map, page E)
Although Lao migration into the Isan region occurred in spurts and waves over several hundred years, the Dai-speaking Lao would eventually populate the entire Northeast with the region south of the Mun River remaining inhabited primarily by Northern Khmer and other various Khmer minority groups. [39]
Ramathibodi was crowned monarch of the Ayutthaya kingdom in 1350, which marked the beginning of the second recognized Thai kingdom, lasting a 417-year period. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the whole region underwent substantial change. Three decades after Ramkhamhaeng's death, Sukhothai was merged with Ayutthaya as the northern capital city.
Constant strife characterized the Ayutthaya kingdom period because of a continuous quest to extend power and control in all directions, both west towards Burma and east towards Laos, Isan and the defunct Khmer kingdom.

1500 and 1600s

In the void left in the Northeast after the demise of the Khmer kingdom, there was little to prevent the Lao culture and people from spreading throughout the Mekong valley region and out across Isan's Korat plateau. This, in part, was a politically motivated attempt to raise Lan Chang to equal status with other major kingdom-states such as Lanna and Ayutthaya.
In an attempt to strengthen Lan Chang's influence in the entire area, Prince Setthathirat -- under the direction of his father, King Photisarat -- occupied the throne of the Lanna kingdom located in present-day Chiang Mai, Thailand, approximately 200 miles (360 kilometers) south-west of Luang Pra Bang, Lan Chang's capital city. By 1547, upon King Photisarat's death, both the Lanna and Lan Chang Kingdoms experienced increasing unrest, forcing Prince Setthathirat to rush back to Luang Pra Bang to maintain the Lan Chang kingdom, his central power base in the region.
By the late 1540s, Burmese forces unsuccessfully blockaded and attacked Ayutthaya, and later sacked it in 1767.

[39] These Mon-Khmer speaking ethnic groups include the: Kui, So, Bruu, and Trii peoples.

The death of King Setthathirat of Lan Chang gave rise to problems of succession with the result that the Burmese stepped in once more, deporting the rulers of Lan Chang to Burma. Once again Lan Chang was plunged into turmoil, calmed only by the ascension of King Surinyavongsa.
King Surinyavongsa's rule marked a grand period in the country's history. A very popular monarch, he was skillful in delegating and sharing power between different factions. Although he enjoyed a reputation of being fair-minded, he was capable of being extremely harsh, executing his only son for adultery.
With the advent of King Surinyavongsa's death, once again the country of Laos fell into disarray. By the early 18th century the former prosperous kingdom of Lan Chang was divided into three separate states, not always on good terms with one another. Lan Chang eventually fell to Siamese rule.

Isan Peasant Revolt

Near the end of the seventeenth century, Korat was the scene of a peasant revolt. A "Holy Man" by the name of Bun Khwang tried to liberate Isan from the Siamese and to make it independent. He assembled four thousand men, a hundred horses and almost as many elephants and marched through the hills on the way to Ayutthaya. He was intercepted and killed only sixty kilometers from his destination.
At that time Ayutthaya's control did not extend beyond Korat. Conceivably the revolt was more an expression of Lao expansion, having spread throughout the Northeast during the Lan Chang period. This was the first of a number of rebellions that would shake the Northeast periodically up to the 20th century. These upheavals contributed to the general consensus among its inhabitants that the Isan region should not be part of Siam, being constantly oppressed and exploited by the central authorities. [40]

1700s to 1800s

The last quarter of the eighteenth century was an important transition period for Isan. For the first time, the Thai or Siamese authorities in Bangkok began to take a wider interest in the area. Until this time, the provinces beyond Nakon Ratchasima (Korat) and most of the Korat plateau were considered outer territories with obligations to Bangkok only in an annual monetary sum. By the time of Rama I's death in 1809, about twenty of these provinces had accepted an increase in central control. This was mainly achieved by promising the local rulers security and protection in return for tribute and the provision of manpower when required. The authorities allowed the rulers of these areas to use the title of Phraya and ranked them as governors.

[40] Rogers, Northeast Thailand from Prehistoric to Modern Times .

Early in the reign of Rama III, a monarch not known for his diplomatic finesse, a crisis erupted in the tributary state of Vientiane. [41] The ruler there, Phraya Chao Anu, revolted against Rama III, feeling that he had not been given the honor he deserved by Siam. Acting on the rumors that the British Royal Navy was about to bombard Bangkok, Anu mounted a three-pronged attack against Bangkok using the Northeastern city of Korat as a base. The rebellion was eventually put down by the Siamese. The capitol of Vientiane was completely razed and most of the remainder of the kingdom of Vientiane was drawn under Siamese rule as many separate provinces. Some forty new muang or districts were created, which directly or indirectly paid tribute to Bangkok. The destruction of Vientiane was accompanied by the forced transfer of the population, transferring ethnic Lao into areas they had not previously occupied and even into the area of the central Chao Phraya river basin.

Early 1900s -- The Monthon System and Rebellion

The next serious internal disorder occurred in 1901-1902 when rebellion brought a series of uprisings throughout the Northeast, involving virtually all the Northeastern provinces at that time. The revolt seems to have begun in French Laos in 1901 as a messianic movement, later moving across the Mekong into Thailand's Northeast Region.
Bizarre prophesies were circulated that gravel would turn into gold while silver and gold would become gravel. People claiming to be holy men were arrested on the grounds they were swindling people out of their money in exchange for protection against the prophesy.
The rebellion was essentially against administrative changes, i.e., the setting up of the monthon system ordered by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). The monthon system was opposed because it was believed it would deprive the people of their livelihood and that the officials implementing it were corrupt and petty, some of whom had masqueraded as holy men.
In 1902, the rebellion spread quickly and bands of rebels attacked government representatives throughout the Northeast. However, these aggressive acts brought immediate reprisals.

[41] King Nang Klao or Rama III (1824-1851) was the third monarch of the Chakri Dynasty and was not known for his diplomacy. In dealing with Cambodia and Laos, Siam came into conflict with Annam, or Vietnam, in Rama III's reign, though the Annamese Emperor Gialong, who founded a new dynasty, had sought and received the protection of Rama I. Cambodia recognized Rama I as her master and transferred the provinces of Battambong and Siemrap to him, but she learned more and more on Annam afterwards. Annam also granted asylum and support to a Laotian leader, Anuwon, who took up arms against Siam. Bitterly enraged with her for having adopted such a policy, Rama III sent an army into Cambodia with a mission to clear it of the Annamese troops, thus causing a Thai-Annamese war to break out in 1833. The war dragged on for fourteen years and eventually both sides made peace. History Of Thailand And The Thai People, Assumption University Department of Historical , April, 1997, http://sunsite.au.ac.th/thailand/thai_his/history.html

Their end marked the successful administrative incorporation of the Lao in the Northeast by the Siamese central government.
In 1912, the Siamese authorities described Isan as having "poverty of the soil" and "adverse climatic conditions," which rendered it unproductive. It was said to be of no redeeming value, containing no marketable timber and huge swamplands with defective drainage. [42]
Throughout the 20th century this description has remained, as Isan is still the poorest region in the country, due to neglect and the admittedly limited efforts of generally indifferent successive governments.

Poverty and Neglect

Poverty and neglect became standard bywords for Isan. Even such important events as the end of the absolute monarchy in 1932 were of little real relevance to the population there, locked in the constant struggle to scratch a living from the soil. The monthon system of governing finally gave way in Isan after 1932, as in other areas of Thailand, as a new dawn of representative democracy was begun.
The harsh realities of life in Isan, the disparity between living standards there and in the other two-thirds of the country, and the apparently callous indifference of the central authorities, contributed to numerous defiant incidents.
Uprisings occurred in 1924, 1936 and 1959, but the scale of these disturbances was too small and limited to cause the government serious concern. Expansion and reform of the educational system became an important nationwide edict. In the Northeast, central Thai became compulsory for the Isan, who had used the Lao language and script until that time. This brought some advantages, but was interpreted by some Northeasterners as another attempt to destroy their cultural identity.

Communist Activity

The first communist activity in Thailand seems to have occurred in the late 1920s with a visit by Ho Chi Minh to the ethnic Vietnamese community living in the Northeast. By the advent of World War II, Prime Minister Phibun began harassing and arresting opponents of the government. Particular attention was paid to popular Northeastern politicians who were charged with plotting to secede from the rest of Thailand to become part of a communist-leaning Indochina. These officials were arrested and later shot "while attempting to escape," further aggravating the prevailing sense of alienation and oppression of Northeastern political leaders by the central government. Because of actions like this, by the 1950s the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) were able to gain a greater foothold and support among Isan villagers.

[42] Rogers, Northeast Thailand from Prehistoric to Modern Times.

Mid 1900s

In 1958 General (later Field Marshal) Sarit Thanarat took control of the central government. Sarit was born in Bangkok but his maternal roots were Laotian and much of his early life was spent in the Northeast. These cultural links were reflected in some of the development programs he sponsored later in his term. Under Sarit, leadership was provided by the Army and validated by the King. Upon his death, the prime ministership passed to General Thanom Kittikachorn.
EDITING NOTE (This section to be continued ... )

Present Period

At this point of the Saga, the stage has now been set for the Isan people's emergence from their agrarian-based economic roots into migratory urban laborers.
During the 1960s and early 1970s the United States engaged in a rapid build-up of forces aimed to halt North Vietnamese efforts to absorb South Vietnam. US bases were established in the strategic area of Isan enabling the United States Air Force to attack their targets more directly. In exchange for permission to set up these bases, the US guaranteed the independence of Thailand and greatly increased the level of its military assistance. This led to considerable improvement of the infrastructure in the Northeast in terms of road links for transportation. This also led to direct contact with thousands of American servicemen and American ways, the impact of which has yet to be fully realized.

Conclusions and Observations

Although many have attempted to give an extensive overview of early Southeast Asian history, experts agree that because of sparse and conflicting historical accounts over the centuries, modern-day understanding of the region remains sketchy at best. To paraphrase D. G. E. Hall, the genesis of the people and the region remain shrouded. Consequently, no one historical authority has been able to pin-point the origins and early interrelationships between the forerunners of today's Lao-Isan people and their Thai cousins.
Consequently, barring the discovery of any new substantiated evidence, the origins and early interactions between the Thai-Siamese progenitors and those of their Lao-speaking neighbors who settled the Isan region will likely remain vague. With that in mind, this chapter has not been an attempt to better what scholarly work has already been done, which would likely prove similarly inconclusive. Conversely, it is an endeavor to indicate and discuss the various possibilities of the origins of the Isan peoples, as well as their interrelationships with their neighbors, namely the Central Thai, the Khmer and the Lao.

Revisionist History and Other Discrepancies

Most internationally recognized historians and socio-linguists trace the thread of the Thai and other Dai-speaking people's origins back to Yunnan province in southern China -- having been forced southward during thirteenth-century Mongol raids. Recently, however, Thai historians, proud of their national tradition, prefer not to think of themselves as having been forced out of anywhere, and have proposed a revisionist approach that their forefathers were always in Thailand. As proof, they point to the bronze age civilization unearthed at Ban Chiang in Udon province and the cliff paintings at Pa Taem in Ubon province, both of which are located in the Isan region.
Along these same lines, recent changes have taken place in the government owned and sanctioned Thai Tourism Authority's (TAT) official policy and attitude towards Isan. Previously, conspicuous by its absence, Isan has never received even a cursory mention in any of their travel literature. Now, realizing the tourism potential they were missing, the TAT is exploring new innovative ways to turn a profit. In 1998 they declared it "The Year To Visit Isan." Moreover, they now assert in their promotional brochures and videos that Isan is "the true face of Thailand and the Thai people." [43]
This complete reversal lines up with the newly promoted notion by the historical revisionists that the Isan region is the origin of the Thai people. However, given the fact that area cultures promote respect for one's elders, it does not explain the sanctimonious attitude held by many Thai towards the people of present-day Isan or Laos.
In promoting this revisionist approach to Thai origins, many questions are raised. Namely, if the Thai ancestral line originated in the Isan region as advocates claim, why do the Thai not esteem their Isan cousins, who would also have been direct descendants of their claimed progenitors? Moreover, if the Thai people did originate in the Isan region, treating the Isan as they do contradicts their own cultural mores, which promotes honor and respect for one's own ancestors and all things ancient.
Second, if the Thai ancestral line first appeared in the Isan region as modern revisionism claims, they would have been under Khmer rule there as well, who ruled the whole area including Isan, according to Khmer, Indian, and Chinese chronicles? And, if the Thai were such capable warriors, why weren't they able to cast off Khmer rule while in Isan, and not in Sukhothai?
Third, if the Thai ancestral line first appeared in the Isan region, why was Sukhothai's location far removed from Isan and in a direct southerly route downstream the Mekong River from Yunnan province of southern China, which reinforces that was their course of migration? (SEE MAP)
Fourth, if the Dai-speaking Thai ancestral line originated in the Isan region, why are there Dai-speaking peoples of a similar cultural and linguistic imprint living in Yunnan province in Southern China, hundreds of kilometers upstream, who conceivably are the sibling-cousins of the Thai, Lao and Isan?
A more likely explanation is that the presence of Dai-speaking Thai, Lao, Isan, and minority sub-groups in present-day Thailand and Laos is that the predecessors of these interrelated groups migrated directly down the Mekong river from China's Yunnan province and continued down tributaries, across headwaters and overland, following more-easily traversed river valleys to settle in their present-day locations in Thailand and Laos.
Luang Pra Bang, capital of the earliest Laotian kingdom of Lan Chang, is located directly on the Mekong River near the Ohn River; whereas Sukhothai, celebrated as the Thai's first kingdom, is located further southwest between the Yom and Nan Rivers. Both of these migrations are in a direct line downstream on major rivers from China's Yunnan province, a few hundred miles to the north. (SEE MAP)

Early Dichotomous Relationships Between the Thai and Isan

When and how the various migrations occurred, available evidence suggests that early Dai-speaking settlers of the Isan region (along with Khmer-speaking minority groups from Angkor) probably never came under direct dominion of the burgeoning Sukhothai kingdom, but remained small and provincial despite Sukhothai's campaign for territorial expansion during the reign of Ramkhamhaeng and afterwards. If this hypothesis is accurate, it establishes an important precedent, which forms the standard for Thai and Lao-Isan relationships throughout their parallel histories.
As a result, although the Isan region later became a part of Thai holdings, gained first through Ayutthaya's skirmishes with various Lao kingdom states; in the minds of the Thai, Isan settlers were always considered outsiders, never having been part of the original Sukhothai kingdom.
This longstanding dichotomy is readily observed in the government's biased policies and crony favoritism in the many assistance and development programs supporting other more prosperous regions of the country, while failing to adequately assuage the impoverished living conditions of the citizens in the Isan region. This began to change as the Isan populace became more influential as a voting bloc, electing local individuals as their parliamentary representatives.
In conclusion, apart from the stop-gap measures taken during the Vietnam War to stem spreading communist infiltration -- covered in Chapter Three -- Isan would arguably still remain unassisted and underdeveloped, to the detriment of national harmony and political unity, and the well-being of the people of the Isan Region of Thailand.

46[1] Robert Dick Wilson, the distinguished Princeton Seminary Old Testament Scholar.
47[2] Various aspects of the Isan class struggle would include: social, cultural, economic, educational and political advancement or development.
48[3] The various players in this unfolding drama of possession of the Isan region over the centuries include the Khmer, the Thai, the Burmese, the Lao and their predecessors, the Cham, the Mong, and others.
49[4] Mark Caldwell's Isan People Profile Paper. November 1997 (unpublished)
50[5] D. G. E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia, chapter thirteen: "... The Tai Kingdoms... ," Second edition, Jarrold and Sons, Norwich, Great Britain, 1965, p. 238
51[6] Historians, archeologists, socio-cultural anthropologists and linguists, as well as other related disciplines.
52[7] Ban Chiang diggings: Ban Chiang is a village located within present-day Udon Thani province, approximately 40 miles east of Udon city. There are also adjacent findings in village areas in the general Sakon Nakon Basin region to the east of Ban Chiang.
53[8] Approximately five to six thousand years ago, according to Thai claims. This would line up with the bronze age and later the iron age.
54[9] Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, Laos: A Country Study, Washington , D.C. 1971.
55[10] Leaving southern Indian ports were ivory, onyx, cotton goods, silks, pepper and other spices, and from the Roman empire the Indians imported tin, lead, antimony and wine.
56[11] Intrusions included those of Alexandria of Greece, from Persian and Median Empires, and possibly Rome with whom India conducted trade.